European Lifestyle

European Lifestyle

Definition

 Definition Erasmus of Rotterdam stated that while there are various perspectives to consider, it is challenging to establish a comprehensive definition of European culture. However, there are fundamental elements commonly recognized as the cultural basis of modern Europe. These elements, as outlined by K. Bochmann, include a shared cultural and spiritual heritage rooted in Greco-Roman antiquity, Christianity, Judaism, the Renaissance, Humanism, Enlightenment political thought, the French Revolution, and the advancements of Modernity, encompassing various forms of socialism. Additionally, there is a diverse and evolving material culture that has spread to other continents due to industrialization and colonialism during the "Great Divergence." Europe also embraces a distinct concept of individualism, characterized by the presence of legal systems that safeguard human rights and individual liberty. Moreover, Europe comprises a multitude of states with differing political structures that exchange new ideas. Furthermore, European culture emphasizes respect for peoples, states, and nations beyond the continent. Berting suggests that these aspects align with Europe's most significant achievements. The concept of European culture is closely tied to the traditional definition of the Western world, defined by its literary, scientific, political, artistic, and philosophical principles distinguishing it from other civilizations, encapsulated in the Western canon. This term extends to regions heavily influenced by European migration or settlement in the 18th and 19th centuries, such as the Americas and Australasia, not limited to Europe alone. In his 1948 publication, Notes Towards the Definition of Culture, Nobel Prize laureate Thomas Stearns Eliot acknowledged the profound Christian impact on European culture, highlighting Christianity's role in shaping European arts and laws.

History

During the 5th century BCE, Greek philosopher Herodotus proposed the idea that separated Europe and Asia, distinguishing Europe as the West (where the sun sets) and the East (where the sun rises). Later, a concept of Europe as a cultural sphere arose during the Carolingian Renaissance in the late 8th and early 9th centuries, focusing on the regions of Europe that followed Western Christianity.

Art

Prehistoric art in Europe consists mainly of sculpture and rock art. Notable pieces include the Venus of Hohle Fel, dating back to 40,000-35,000 BC, found in Schelklingen, Germany; the Löwenmensch figurine from around 30,000 BC, considered the oldest undisputed figurative artwork; and the Swimming Reindeer from approximately 11,000 BCE, a remarkable Magdalenian carving in bone or antler. During the Mesolithic period, figurative sculpture declined, giving way to relief decoration on practical objects until the Roman era. Examples of prehistoric art include the Gundestrup cauldron from the European Iron Age and the Bronze Age Trundholm sun chariot. The oldest European cave art, dating back to 40,800 years ago, can be found in El Castillo Cave in Spain, with similar artworks scattered throughout the continent. Rock painting, while also prevalent on cliff faces, has seen fewer surviving examples due to erosion, such as the paintings in Astuvansalmi in Finland. The Rock Art of the Iberian Mediterranean Basin is characterized by depictions of human figures in large groups engaging in various activities like battles, dancing, and hunting, often with intricate details like clothing. These figures are typically portrayed in thin paint, emphasizing the relationships between humans and animals over individual figures. Prehistoric Celtic art, distinct from much of Iron Age Europe, is primarily seen in high-status metalwork adorned with intricate, abstract designs featuring curving and spiral forms. Human figures in Celtic art are rare, possibly due to religious taboos. While the Roman conquest led to the disappearance of this style across Celtic territories, its influence persisted in the British Isles, shaping the Insular style of the Early Middle Ages.

Classical art

Ancient Greek art is known for its development of naturalistic yet idealized depictions of the human body, with a focus on nude male figures. The period from about 750 to 300 BC saw remarkable stylistic advancements, particularly evident in Ancient Greek sculpture. While innovations in Greek painting are harder to assess due to the scarcity of surviving original works, painted pottery remains a distinct and significant art form. Black-figure and red-figure pottery are renowned examples of Ancient Greek decorative arts. Roman art, heavily influenced by Greek artistic traditions, can be viewed as a successor to ancient Greek painting and sculpture. However, it also drew inspiration from Etruscan art native to Italy. Sculpture held a prestigious position in Roman art, with a strong emphasis on portraiture depicting the elite and the divine. Although figure painting was highly esteemed, Roman painting exhibited unique qualities. Surviving Roman paintings, notably from villas in Southern Italy like those at Pompeii and Herculaneum, showcase various styles and techniques, including trompe-l'œil and pseudo-perspective. Early Christian art evolved from Roman artistic conventions, incorporating elements from both popular and Imperial Roman art.

Medieval art

Medieval art can be broadly divided into Byzantine art from the Eastern Roman Empire and Gothic art from Western Europe during the same era. Byzantine art was heavily influenced by its classical roots but set itself apart through the creation of a new, abstract aesthetic characterized by anti-naturalism and a preference for symbolism. The main focus of monumental Byzantine art was religious and imperial subjects, often intertwined, as seen in the portraits of later Byzantine emperors adorning the interior of the sixth-century Hagia Sophia church in Constantinople. Unlike Western medieval art, which saw a revival of monumental sculpture from the Carolingian period onward, the Byzantines, influenced by Early Christian beliefs, were wary of incorporating large sculptures in religious art. Instead, they primarily produced reliefs, with very few surviving pieces in life-size. Small ivories, especially in relief, played a significant role in Byzantine art. Items such as Consular diptychs, the Veroli casket, hardstone carvings, enamels, glassware, jewelry, metalwork, and figured silks were produced in abundance throughout the Byzantine era. The Migration Period art encompasses the artistic expressions of Germanic tribes on the continent and the emergence of Insular art, a blend of Anglo-Saxon and Celtic cultures in the British Isles. Various styles, including the polychrome style and the Scythian and Germanic animal style, are represented in this period. After the Christianization process, Migration Period art evolved into different schools of Early Medieval art in Western Europe, categorized by region, such as Anglo-Saxon art and Carolingian art, preceding the continent-wide styles of Romanesque art and ultimately Gothic art. Romanesque art and Gothic art dominated Western and Central Europe from around 1000 AD until the ascent of the Renaissance style in the 15th century or later, depending on the geographical area. Romanesque art heavily drew from Byzantine and Insular influences, with a focus on religious art like church sculptures and ornate manuscripts. The art of this period was characterized by a vigorous style in both sculpture and painting, with vibrant primary colors predominating. Compositions often lacked depth and needed to be adaptable to fit into historiated initials, column capitals, and church tympanums. Figures varied in size based on their importance, and landscape backgrounds, when included, were more abstract than realistic. Gothic art emerged from Romanesque art in Northern France in the 12th century AD, closely tied to the development of Gothic architecture. It expanded throughout Western Europe and parts of Southern and Central Europe. By the late 14th century, the elegant courtly style of International Gothic emerged, evolving until the late 15th century. In regions like England and Germany, Late Gothic art persisted well into the 16th century. Gothic art often featured typological representations, showcasing narratives from the New Testament alongside the Old Testament. The depictions of saints' lives were common, and portrayals of the Virgin Mary shifted from the traditional Byzantine style to a more human and affectionate form, reflecting the manners of a noblewoman. During the Gothic period, secular art flourished as a burgeoning bourgeois class could now support the arts and commission works. The rise in literacy and the expansion of secular vernacular literature encouraged the portrayal of secular themes in art. The formation of trade guilds in growing urban centers led to artists being required to join painters' guilds, resulting in better documentation of artists by name during this period compared to earlier times.